Tara and the Female in Buddhism

Tara and the Female in Buddhism

The female in Buddhism, despite its Master's reluctance to admit

women folk into the order, was its psychological need and

comprised its spiritual structure. Compassion - the softest

aspect of being, man or divine, which was the core of Buddhism,

best revealed itself in a female frame. Hence, in the course of

time, feminineness dominated the Buddhist ambience so much so

that even the images of the male gods like Avalokiteshvara were

conceived with a feminine touch in their appearance and as an

essential aspect of personality.

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The feminine tenderness and grace with which subsequent Buddhist

images were conceived define the epitome of Buddhist iconographic

perception and art. After benevolence and protectiveness, other

virtues which a female best represented, were added to the

cardinal of compassion this feminine aspect was more thrusting

and diversified with the result that during Mahayana phase, more

so in Tibetan Buddhism, the number of female deities reached in

thousands.

Such psychodynamics apart, factors outside Buddhism, especially

plurality cult of Brahmanism and preponderance of feminine

elements, played a vital role in determining the male-female

ratio and their relative significance in Buddhism too. By sixth

century or so mutuality of Brahmanical male and female 'devatas -

gods, was completely revolutionized, the female gaining supremacy

and priority over the male, even the great Trinity - Brahma,

Vishnu and Shiva. Texts like Devi-Mahatmya in the Markandeya

Purana and Devi-Bhagavata among others installed Devi not only as

possessing attributes and cumulative energies of all male gods

but also as preceding them, even creation. Invoking a different

form or aspect in each of the 'dhyanas' - meditative visions,

these texts perceived Devi - Divine Female, as one and also as

many, the former defining unity, and latter, diversity. To this

plurality were added her 'shaktis' - subordinate powers.

Aboriginals as well as Vedic Aryans had some early female deities

but while those in the former tradition were just regional

inoperative boon-bestowing icons, most of the latter represented

aniconic elements or aspects of nature - usually terror

inflicting, they appeased by laudation and 'havya' - offerings.

The more accomplished post-Devi-Mahatmya form of Devi was,

however, completely different from them both.

Early Female Deities in Buddhism

The Buddhism, too, had some early female deities, mostly

inherited from erstwhile cults, as the Earth goddess and some

yakshanis, Hariti in particular, from aboriginal tribes, and

Lakshmi and Saraswati, from the Vedic. Interestingly, the Earth

goddess who had iconic presence in pre-Buddhist cults was in

Buddhism a symbolic presence, while Lakshmi and Saraswati, the

aniconic Vedic deities, had in Buddhism well-defined iconographic

forms. When the Buddha invoked the mother earth to be the witness

to his act of conquering Mara and its hosts, he perceived her as

all-seeing formless one competent to certify genuineness of his 

act.

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Except the Lalitavistara that talks of her as appearing in

person, or the Nidanakatha and Mahavastu that talk of her quaking

and dispelling Mara and its hosts, in the entire Buddhist

literature the mother earth remains a non-operative aniconic

spiritual presence. The earth goddess is alluded to in texts time

and again sometimes as Sthavara - Steadfast, having ten lac

forms, and at other times as Aparajita - Undefeatable, in

Buddhist narratives she does not appear again. In the Mahayana

narratives she appears before the pilgrim Suthana but only to

proclaim that she has been the witness of the 'spiritual

transformations of all Buddhas when they were to almost attain

enlightenment', a role identical to her earlier one.

Later, after Buddha's mother Mayadevi was deified around Lumbini,

where the Buddha was born, the role of mother-goddess shifted to her.

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This human-born mother of their Master was more intimate a mother

and inspired greater reverence than did the symbolic earth

goddess. As the tradition has it, Mayadevi gave up her mortal

frame soon after the Buddha was born, only to seek greater

freedom to roam and re-visit her son as and when wished.

Consequently, each time a Bodhisattva was born Mayadevi

re-created herself to be his mother. She was thus the mother of

all Bodhisattvas and all Buddhas. She was present on all eventful

occasions in Buddha's life, as at river Niranjana where he

emaciated due to fasting. Her eyes melted into tears the moment

she saw him. Buddha visited her in Tushit or Trayastrinsha Heaven

and delivered sermon.

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She is said to descend from Heaven on the Buddha's

Mahaparinirvana and weep over his robe.

The other woman who rose to divine heights and attained

Buddhahood was Mahaprajapati Gautami, Buddha's maternal aunt, who

brought him up after his mother Mayadevi died. However, Gautami

appears in Buddhist narratives only after Sakyamuni attains

Buddhahood and accepting his path she embarks on her quest for

liberation, as a regular monk. She was the first woman to seek

monastic life on par with men and establish the order of female

monks. She was the founder of nuns' order and was the ever first

preceptor of its first batch. She had thus an outstanding role in

the growth of institutional life in Buddhism. The Buddhist

tradition venerates Gautami as the female Buddha, who destroyed

all her imperfections, acquired great powers, knew others'

thought, heard divine chorus, and was beyond the cycle of birth

and death. No shrines are dedicated to Gautami but her legends

figure in Buddhist sectarian art and faithful heads have always

bowed in reverence over them.

Hariti and Yakshani Cult

Yakshas-yakshanis, often interchanged with 'devatas', were an

integral part of pre-Buddhist cosmology and their worship a major

cultic activity of Indian populace. Buddhism neither questioned

or prohibited nor ignored yaksha-worship. Rather,

yakshas-yakshanis were a recurring theme in early Buddhist art.

Buddha even advised people to honor, worship and make offerings

to yakshas as it brought prosperity. He even ordained that

Hariti, the yakshani, would have a shrine at every monastery and

also daily offering. Since then Hariti shrine became a

monastery's essential feature, and Hariti, its protecting deity. 

The benevolent matron surrounded by children, Hariti represented

female procreativity, abundance and fertility.

Hariti, meaning thief, was initially a devourer of infants.

Buddha transformed her into a protector of children and

benefactor of humans. As the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya has it,

Hariti was the daughter of Sata, patron yaksha of Rajagraha. Her

name was Abhirati. After Sata died, his duties towards Rajagraha

devolved on Abhirati and her brother Satagiri. Abhirati had,

however, a different mind. Instead of serving as protector she

had a vow to prey on children of Rajagraha and the same she

revealed to her brother. When nothing could dissuade her,

Satagiri married her to Panchaka, the son of the patron Yaksha of

Gandhara. She had by him five hundred children. Before long,

impelled to act by her baneful pledge she along with her

offspring came back to Rajagraha and began abducting and

devouring infants and children. Reports reached the king, and on

his counselor's advice offerings were made to the unknown yaksha

but all without result. Meanwhile, a yaksha disclosed all that

Abhirati was doing. The term Abhirati meant a 'joyful girl',

something not co-relating with her act. People hence changed her

name to Hariti, the thief. Finally, townsfolk approached

Sakyamuni who moved by their grief decided to deal with Abhirati

in her own coins. He concealed Abhirati's youngest son Priyankara

under his alms bowl. Not finding him anywhere, Abhirati broke

into tears blinding her almost. Eventually, advised by a senior

yaksha she also went to Sakyamuni and pledged that she would end

her life that very day if her son was not restored. It afforded

to Buddha the opportunity to make Abhirati realize the grief of

parents who lost their only son when the loss of just one out of

five hundred crazed her.

Realizing her ills Hariti empathized with parents whose children

she had stolen and promised not only to desist but also protect

and nourish them since onwards. She turned to Buddha as her

spiritual guide and to his path. Buddha restored her child. He

ordained that she would have a part of offerings, and with it she

would nourish her offspring. He also revealed to her what turned

her into a devourer of infants and children. In one of her

previous birth she was a herdswoman in Rajagraha. one day when in

market to sell her buttermilk, a huge crowd of people celebrating

some festival invited her to dance. Accepting the invitation she

participated and danced and aborted in exhaustion. Despite all

that, she sold her buttermilk for five hundred mangos and

staggered homewards. on her way she met a Pratyeka (solitary)

Buddha. Impressed by him she offered him all her five hundred

mangos. In her moments of deep reverence she pledged to avenge

people of Rajagraha for her miscarriage by devouring their 

children.

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Lakshmi and Saraswati

Lakshmi and Saraswati are two Rig-Vedic deities in the Buddhist

line. Their absorption into the Buddhist stream was perhaps

necessitated by what they represented - Lakshmi, abundance,

prosperity, fertility, happiness, beauty, luster, sovereignty

among others, and Saraswati, art, culture, learning and all

fruits of intellect. With followers from ranks and upper strata

Buddhism could hardly ignore Lakshmi. And, an order as was

Buddhism, esteeming wisdom, reasoning, oratorical skill . as the

best of man, might not reject Saraswati who besides harnessing

them had a lot in common with Prajnaparmita, the most venerated

Buddhist divinity.

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The early Buddhist texts are, however, evasively silent about

them both. Lakshmi has significant presence in early Buddhist art

at Bharhut, Sanchi . but Saraswati is completely missing. By

around the 3rd century C.E., even Lakshmi disappears. Except a

couple of them, Lakshmi images are not seen even in Gandhara

sculptures. From around the sixth-seventh centuries Lakshmi

images begin appearing on a larger scale but they are on

Brahmanical lines, not Buddhist. Lakshmi's presence in early art

but absence in texts, and in art, her icons decorating

subordinate spaces, not forming part of the proper Buddhist

theme, are enigmatic. Maybe, while rich donors commissioning

construction of a stupa, or a part, at Bharhut, Sanchi or

anywhere, insisted inclusion of Lakshmi icons for her favor, the

order of the monks that determined the line of a text, or the

body of the theme to be carved at a sacred site, was reluctant to

admit her into the pantheon, at least as regular deity. The

conflict was perhaps resolved by including Lakshmi icons as

subordinate motifs, not as official deity, or part of a regular

Buddhist theme. Saraswati was the patron of intellectuals -

poets, dramatists. Like rich donors these intellectuals weren't

instrumental in constructing a shrine, and, hence, Saraswati

images weren't patronized. Apart, Buddhism had Saraswati's

substitutes in Tara and Prajnaparmita, the deities with wider

range of attributes and personality aspects. It was in late

Tibetan Buddhism that the order of Lamas laid fresh impetus on

Saraswati worship and consecrated her in Buddhist pantheon.

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Tara

'Whose smile made the sun to shine and frown made darkness to

envelope the terrestrial sphere' is how the 778 AD Nagari

inscription of Kalasan Chandi sanctuary at Java pays homage to

Tara. This apart, Prince Shailendra, the founder of sanctuary,

lauds the goddess as the savior of men and the most noble and

venerable one. The temple she then enshrined was just one but by

around 12th century Java hardly had a household shrine which was

without an image of Tara.

Tara, the principal Buddhist goddess conceived with a wide range

of attributes and personality aspects, has in Buddhism the same

status as Devi or Durga in the Brahmanical. As various

Brahmanical goddesses look like different forms of Devi, most

Buddhist deities look like Tara's 'bhedas' - manifestations. As

Devi preceded all gods, Tara as Prajnaparmita - Perfection of

Wisdom and highest metaphysical principle, is claimed to have

priority even over Buddha. Like Devi who revealed to Vishnu who

he was and what for he was there, in Buddhism, Tara was the light

and the prime source of Buddhahood and thus of all Buddhas. Like

Devi, who is Shiva's consort, Tara has been conceived as the

consort of Avalokiteshvara. Like Devi who is the mother of the

gods of the highest order, Tara, at least in Mahayana Buddhism,

is the mother of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas. Tara had an early

presence in the Buddhist pantheon; however it was largely after

the emergence of the Devi cult around the sixth-seventh centuries

that Tara rose to a status on par with any other Buddhist god and

was sometimes venerated like the great Master himself. Tibetan

Buddhism has thousands of deities with local identities; Tara is

the deity known to all, and her mantra - hymn, to every lip. In

Tibet she is almost its national deity.

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Tara in Brahmanism

Scholars have discovered in early texts like the Mahabharata a

term 'tarini' meaning one that carried one's votaries across

waters of tribulation and linked it with Tara suggesting her

early origin and Brahmanical connection. The argument is little

convincing. Tara's form, as emerged later in the Tantra, or as

one of the Mahavidyas, was not known to the writers of the

Mahabharata or of the main eighteen Puranas. Not so early, she

undoubtedly preceded Mahavidyas, as when with one Mahavidya, not

ten, the Mahavidya-cult was just evolving, Tara had her fully

evolved form. Her transformation as one of the Mahavidyas

occurred long after.

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In her early form Tara was seen as commanding shaktis - powers

that controlled rush of waters, protected navigators and guided 

boats.

Before her emergence as second Mahavidya Tara's concept continued

to change. In Agni Purana, she is a Yogini, not devata.

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In Mayadipaka, she has one form while as Mahavidya, another.

Shaivite tradition considers her as the transform of Mahamaya,

the great illusion. Shiva's epithet after he consumed arson

during ocean-churning was Akshobhya - unperturbed, and Tara was

his consort. Tara's prime presence is, however, in Tantra.

Brahmanical Tantra-books do not go back beyond 6th century.

Obviously, the Brahmanical Tara must have emerged only

afterwards. The Java inscription, dated 778, and Chalukyan dated

circa 1095-96, comprise her earliest known epigraphic records.

Not as popular in South as in North, Tara is the principal deity

of all significant Tantras. In Brahmanical texts too,

Chinachara-krama - worship-mode as prevailed in China, was the

accepted mode of her worship. Apart, the legend that sage

Vashishtha went to Mahachina to learn the mode of worshipping

Tara from Buddha, as the same was not known to anybody else, as

also her form different from all other Brahmanical divinities,

suggest that the Buddhist Tara was her prototype.

However, the two concepts of the goddess are widely different.

Despite that in Buddhism Tara has many manifestations, she is

almost always benevolent, compassionate, gentle, playful, young,

lustrous, and protective. The Brahmanical Tara, especially as the

Mahavidya, is almost always fierce, often horrible to behold, and

potentially dangerous, the same as Kali.

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She is usually conceived as riding a corpse in the cremation

ground, or as standing in the attitude of an archer - pratyalidha

posture. Not that Tara does not have a fierce form in Buddhism,

or a benign one in Brahmanism, in general, in the former context

she manifests gentle aspects, while in the latter, fierce ones.

Brahmanical texts allude to her several forms, however, among

them three - Ekajata, Nilasaraswati and Ugra are more

significant. Tararahasya, Taratantra, Tantrasara and

Mantramahodadhi are the principal Brahmanical texts on Tara's

Tantrika-cult.

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Origin of Tara

Ambiguity prevails in regard to both, place and period of the

origin of Tara. Buddha was reluctant to admit womenfolk into the

Sangh. Hence, an early worship-cult of female principle might be

a remote possibility. Western scholars, misled by her 7th-8th

century representations in stone, fix her origin around then and

somewhere in Himalayan region, more likely Tibet, or around. No

doubt, Tara's early pictorial representations, in caves at

Nishik, Ellora, Kanheri etc., are datable to 6th-7th centuries,

but a concept or a metaphysical principle would emerge so

extensively and with such pre-eminence in art in simultaneity to

its origin is something difficult to concede. The journey of a

religious concept from the mind it was born in to the mind that

believed it, and further, to formal visualization into stone or

any other medium, which represented it, might have taken pretty

long time, a few centuries or so. More reasonably, Tara had her

origin during early centuries of the Common Era, perhaps as a

cult already prevalent amongst aboriginals or others, which the

liberal Buddhism readily adopted. Being mightier and more popular

the Tara-cult absorbed other concurrent similar cults and emerged

as the mightiest. Tara's visual transforms emerged late, not

before 4th century at least. Early Avalokiteshvara images are

without Tara, which suggests that her form as his consort was a

later development, perhaps in pursuance to Ardhanarishvara model

of Shiva and Shakti.

Such academic allusions that the worship of Tara was revived in

Tibet by Nagarjuna, the founder of Madhyamika school, apart, the

origin of Tara abounds in several interesting myths. It is said

that all creatures of the world began lamenting when

Avalokiteshvara was about to attain nirvana - final liberation.

Avalokiteshvara heard them. His heart melted in compassion for

their suffering and a tear rolled from his eyes which turned into

Tara. The so-born Tara was the essence of the essence of

compassion. The Swatantra-tantra relates her origin in a Cholana

lake, which lay on the western slope of the mount Meru, the

Indo-Tibetan borderland which had around it several lakes and

many monasteries. People living there looked for a deity to help

cross these lakes. Ultimately, their desire had divine sanction.

On Cholana's right bank close to village Tar was a mountain.

People one day saw on it twenty-one figures of the goddess Tara

which have come into existence of their own.

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Since then the great goddess was always there to help cross the

lakes. This form of Tara is essentially her original form. Root

'tri' from which the term Tara developed itself means to 'swim

across'. All her names popular in Tibet, China, Korea and Japan

give this meaning. In islands like Java she was especially

popular, perhaps for helping people against tempestuous seas. In

Buddhism this aspect was not so significant but as 'Tarini' she

enabled her votaries to wade across 'bhavasagara' - ocean of 

life.

Tara's Bhedas or Forms of Tara

Otherwise innumerable, Tara's main forms are five : Sita or White Tara,

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Shyama or Green Tara,

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Bhrakuti or Yellow Tara,

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Ekajata or Blue Tara,

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and Kurukulla or Red Tara.

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White Tara manifests in seven forms, Green Tara in ten, Yellow

Tara in five, Blue Tara in two, and Red Tara just in one. These

five forms relate to five sacred colors associated with five

Dhyani-Buddhas whose Shaktis these forms are. They also represent

five cosmic elements. Her two other forms : Rajeshvari-Tara,

equated with Gauri or Vishvamata, and the blue lotus-carrying

Pitha-Tara also occur in the Sadhanamala. Apart, the sacred

Tara-mantra commemorates her in eleven forms. In yet another

classification her forms are twenty-one.

The Vajrasana White Tara, her foremost form, represents

Prajnaparmita. She is usually two-armed, right held in varada,

and left in vitarka-mudra - teaching posture, besides it carries

the stem of a full blown lotus. She generally has a third eye,

symbolic of knowledge, but sometimes as many as seven, grafted on

soles and hands. As the Shakti of Amoghasiddha, she carries stems

of lotuses in both hands. Lotus supports a Vishvavajra - double

thunderbolt. Texts perceive her as the timeless youth of sixteen,

lustrous as moon, and adorned in white and with brilliant jewels.

In Tantra, she manifests as white complexioned Janguli, with two

or four arms, wearing white garment, white jewels and carrying

white serpents. With original two hands she plays on vina, of the

other, right is held in abhaya and left holds a white serpent.

Rays of moon form her garland.

Green Tara carries a fully or partially closed blue lotus. With

right leg pendent reaching a foot-rest made of a smaller lotus

she sits on a lotus-throne. Sometimes her seat is supported on

two roaring lions. She carries the image of Amoghasiddha in her

head-dress. When with Avalokiteshvara, she is usually on his

right. A urna mark defines her forehead. She is sometimes

accompanied by her own eight forms, and at other times, by

Ekajata and Marichi, or Janguli and Mahamayuri, her

manifestations. When with Janguli and Mahamayuri, she becomes

Dhanada, giver of wealth. As Dhanada she has four arms, upper

ones in usual postures, lower ones carrying a goad and a lasso.

Some texts perceive her as two-armed, one carrying a lotus and

other held in varada, and as three-eyed. Surrounded by Shaktis

having various colors she is conceived with a smiling face, as

adorned with bright pearls and wearing shoes set with jewels.

Yellow Tara or Bhrikuti, the goddess that frowns, is Tara's angry

form. She carries Amoghasiddha in diadem, holds her right hand in

varada and carries in the left a blue lotus. She is flanked by

Marichi on her right and by Ekajata on left. She is conceived as

a celestial maiden with timeless youth and adorned with jewels.

Khadiravarni Tara and Vajra Tara are her forms. Adorned with all

sorts of ornaments, she is represented as seated in the midst of

Matrikas, divine mothers, having eight arms, right ones carrying

vajra, arrow, conch, varada, and the left, lotus-bow,

diamond-goad, noose and the forefinger of the fourth raised

towards sky, four faces, yellow, black, white and red from left

to right, and three eyes in each face. She sits on the moon

placed on a lotus representing universe. In another innovation,

she sits on a diamond-throne, has red body color and four Buddhas

on her crown.

Blue Tara or Ekajata, one with single chignon, manifests Tara's

ferocious - ugra aspect and is hence known as Ugra Tara. As

represented in texts, she stands in archer's posture, has short

stature, one face; three eyes and protuberant abdomen, is fierce

and terrible-looking, wears necklace of human heads, and is

adorned with a blue lotus. She rides a corpse, is adorned with

eight snakes and five mudras - attitudes, has red and round eyes

and protruding tongue, and is in the prime of youth. Always very

happy she is resplendent because of her wild laughter and

dreadful with her protruding jaws. She wears tiger-skin around

her waist. In her two right hands she carries sword and scissors,

in the left, blue lotus and skull. Her chignon is brown, and head

adorned by Akshobhya.

The four-armed Red Tara or Kurukulla is red-complexioned, sits on

red lotus and wears red garment. one of her right hands is held

in abhaya, while in other is carried an arrow, in one of the left

is held a quiver of jewels, and in other, an arrow made of

red-lotus-buds set on a bow of flowers drawn up to ears.

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Many of Tara's forms are merely her attributes. Over-emphasis

make them look like her bhedas - forms. She is one throughout.

Her attributes are two-fold, pacific and angry, or five-fold

according to five sacred colors, pacific being white or green,

and angry red, yellow or blue. Pacific forms have smiling

ｅxpression, long and wavy hair and ornaments that befitted a

Bodhisattva, and angry, fierce and awe-striking. Many of Tara's

forms - Janguli, Prajnaparmita, Marichi, Bhrakuti. have emerged

in the tradition as independent goddesses and have shrines

dedicated to them.

This article by Prof. P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet

Bibliography

1.. Miranda Shaw  : Buddhist Goddesses of India

2.. Mallar Ghosh : Development of Buddhist Iconography in

Eastern India : A Study of Tara, Prajnas of Five Tathagatas and Bhrikuti

3.. Hitendra Shashtri : ASI Memoirs No. 20 : The Origin and Cult of Tara

4.. Tom Lowenstein : The Vision of the Buddha

5.. David Kinsley : Tantrik Visions of the Divine Feminine

6.. Vessantara : Female Deities in Buddhism

7.. Chhaya Haesner : India : Land of the Buddha

8.. Prithvi Kumar Agrawal : Goddesses in Ancient India

9.. Vasudeva S. Agrawal : Ancient Indian Folk Cults

10.. Eva Allinger : The Green Tara as Saviouress from Eight Dangers in the Sumtsek at Alchi

11.. Shashi Bhushan, Dasgupta : An Introduction to Tantric Buddhism

12.. M. K. Dhavalikar : The Origin of Tara

13.. Edward Conze : Buddhism, its essence and development

14.. Pratapditya Pal : Two Metal Images of Mahashri Tara, in Proceedings of Indian History Congress

15.. Gill Farrer-Halls : The Feminine Face of Buddhism

16.. Sadhanamala, ed. Benoytosh Bhattacharya

17.. Buddhist Women Across Cultures : ed. Karma Lekshe Tsomo

18.. Buddhism, Sexuality, and Gender : ed. Jose Ignacio Cabezon

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