Lakshmi: The Lotus Goddess

  

Lakshmi: The Lotus Goddess

Lakshmi, Mahalakshmi, Padmavati, Shri, Bhoodevi ., one of the

aspects of female cosmic energy, represents fertility, abundance,

prosperity, riches, brilliance and beauty - the 'rajas' aspect of

the phenomenal universe. Sage Markandeya perceives the divine

form, manifesting this female cosmic energy, as one and also as

three-aspected : 'Mahalakshmir Mahakali saiva prokta Saraswati,

Ishvari punyapapana sarvalokamaheshvari' (Devi-Mahatmya, Part 3,

Chapter Vaikrtika Rahasya, verse 25), that is, 'She herself is

proclaimed as Mahalakshmi, Mahakali, and (Maha) Saraswati, the

great ruler of all worlds, reigning over the virtuous and the

wicked'. To sage Markandeya, unity and diversity are attributes

of the same, whether the universe or the divine power governing

it. In his equation, as the universe is one but is composed of

and represents three basic elements - 'tamas', 'rajas' and

'sattva', that are inertia, dynamism and luminosity, the female

cosmic energy pervading and operating over it is one and also

triply manifesting. Thus, Mahalakshmi is also Mahakali and

Mahasaraswati and vice-versa. In Markandeya Purana, Mahalakshmi

is as much the goddess of battlefield as Mahakali or Mahasaraswati.

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As per Markandeya Purana, it is in her manifestation as

Mahalakshmi that Devi kills Mahishasura. Indeed, while the roles 

of Mahakali and Mahasaraswati confine to eliminating demons and

evil, Mahalakshmi operates also beyond the battlefield

representing auspiciousness and beauty.

Origin Of Lakshmi

It is only from 3rd century B. C. onwards that her iconic form,

now almost unanimously identified as Lakshmi, begins appearing.

This form of her, carrying lotuses in her hands, many more

growing around, and elephants surrounding her - an image of

beauty, appears first in the Sanchi and Bharhut reliefs of the

3rd-2nd century B. C., though despite that she figures, and quite

significantly, in these Buddhist reliefs, early or even

contemporary Buddhist texts do not speak of her at all. Thus, she

was a part of Buddhist sculptures but not of those days' Buddhist pantheon.

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Maybe, like many other motifs the Sanchi and Bharhut sculptors

borrowed her form, obviously in view of her aesthetic beauty,

from some early tradition for embellishing gates' facades and

other prominent areas of the stupas. Those relying only on

archaeological finds, which little support this theory, might not

see in the lotus goddess at Sanchi and Bharhut any such

continuity of an early tradition, but even to them, it is nothing

less than a form evolved conjointly out of various sources -

verbal connotation of the Vedic Mahimata, attributes of Sita,

another Vedic visualization of productive process, Indus

fertility cult, iconographic vision of the Mother goddess...

Lakshmi In Vedas

The monotheistic Vedas, despite their perception of cosmic unity,

deciphered on the very outset the two aspected character of

existence and creative process, one, the male, and other, the

female. The Rig-Veda perceives the maleness and the femaleness as

contained within a single frame but also as two attributes of the

'contained'. Apart such mystic duality, the Vedas directly allude

to a number of operative attributes, male and female, having

cosmic dimensions, deify them, and sometimes even personalise.

Among those identified personally Vak, Ushas, Shri, Sita and

Ratri are the main. Sita, the furrow-line, and Ratri, the night,

are casually alluded to, and that too, in Upanishads. However,

independent 'Suktas' are devoted to Vak - speech, and Ushas -

dawn. The Vedas have also alluded to human females, Aditi, the

mother of gods, Diti, Ila and a few others. Though no hymns are

attributed to, or rites ascribed, the Vedas allude to Mahimata,

Mother earth, a deity identical to Harappan Mother Goddess. The

Rig-Veda has some 'Suktas' devoted to Shri but it is completely

indifferent to Lakshmi. This Rig-Vedic Shri is not a form of

Lakshmi as she becomes later. The hymn : 'Ashvapurvau

rathamadhyam hastinadaprabodhineem, Shriyam devimupahvaye shrirma

devi jushatam'; that is, let me be possessed of Shri who equals

an army well accomplished with horses, chariots, elephants etc.

and let my home be her perpetual abode, is sometimes contended to

relate to Lakshmi but while the hymn perceives Shri as one having

immense power equal to an army, Lakshmi represented fertility and abundance.

If at all, Lakshmi made a debut during the later Vedic period,

especially in the Atharva-Veda that alludes to an anonymous deity

possessed of large breasts with milk oozing from them. Certainly

not a form of Shri, the Atharva-Veda appears to be alluding to

the Indus Mother Goddess or a goddess identical to her preceding

the milk-filled large-breasted Lakshmi icons of Sanchi and

Bharhut. In all likelihood this large-breasted goddess,

representing fertility, generative energy and abundance,

transformed into the lotus goddess in the 3rd-2nd century B. C.

reliefs. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata allude to Lakshmi but

many of these allusions are either only by interpretation or

confine to particular editions. Chapter 45 of Bal-kanda in the

Valmiki Ramayana narrates the legend of ocean churning out of

which Lakshmi emerged. Many scholars have quoted this chapter as

elaborating Lakshmi's physical appearance and personality, though

even the Gita Press, Gorakhpur, edition of the Ramayana does not

have any mention of her. Whatever her form, visual or verbal, so

far, Lakshmi was an independent divinity without a male partner,

or male counterpart. Like the Mother Goddess, she was initially

two-armed but subsequently her images began having four arms.

This two and four armed iconography continued ever since - her

votive images being four-armed, and aesthetic, two-armed. Later,

the Puranic literature transformed her into Vishnu's spouse

assisting him in accomplishing his sustenance-related acts, or

serving him personally. Puranas wove around her numerous legends

in regard to her origin, forms, acts and aesthetic beauty, as

also hymns for her rituals.

Lakshmi's Emergence from Ocean

If not subsequently added, the Ramayana is the earliest text to

have the legend of ocean churning for obtaining nectar, though

Lakshmi is not among the jewels that ocean revealed (Valmiki

Ramayana, Bal-kanda, chapter 45). In the Mahabharata (Adiparva,

4) the legend has been dealt with at greater length and Lakshmi

is one of the jewels emerging out of the ocean-churning. Almost

unchanged it was reproduced later in many Puranas. As different

texts have it, once the sons of Aditi - the gods, and those of

Diti - the demons, joined hands to obtain nectar which, they were

told, they could obtain by churning ocean. Using Mount Meru as

the rod and serpent Vasuki as the rope they began churning the

ocean. The disgruntled Vasuki breathed so much of venom that it

not only enshrouded the entire universe but also began

suffocating gods and demons. on Vishnu's prayer Shiva stored the

arson into his throat and saved the cosmos from being destroyed.

Relieved from arson's influence gods and demons began their

exercise afresh. Lakshmi, who emerged riding a lotus, was one

among fourteen jewels which the ocean revealed. Brahma gifted her

to Vishnu who accepted her as his consort. In visual arts the 

earliest appearance of the ocean-churning theme is reported from

the early Gupta period cave temple (300 AD) at Udayagiri in

Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. The lintel of the entrance to the temple

has a relief of ocean-churning with a strong Lakshmi image

emerging from it.

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Other Myths Of Her Origin

As has a myth in Vishnu Purana (1/8), Lakshmi was re-born on the

earth as the daughter of sage Bhragu, the son of Brahman. Her

mother was Khyati, the daughter of Daksha Prajapati. After a

period of time she was married to Narayana, an incarnation of

Vishnu. She had by Narayana two sons, named Bala and Unmada.

Brahmavaivarta Purana attributes her origin to Vishnu. As

acclaimed, Lakshmi was born out of Vishnu's right half, while

from his left half was born Radha, Lakshmi's another incarnation.

In Vishnu's Ardhanarishvara images, which are very rare, Lakshmi

is represented as comprising Vishnu's left half - a visual

manifestation of the Brahmavaivarta Purana myth.

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Quite strangely, while in Shiva's Ardhanarishvara forms his

consort's image, who is otherwise more masculine and vigorous

engaged in acts like slaying demons, is usually humbly conceived,

Lakshmi's image in Vishnu's Ardhanarishvara forms is far more

pronounced. The Bhagawata Purana identifies yet another form of

Lakshmi in the Shrivatsa mark on Vishnu's chest. As is Bhagawata

Purana's version of the sage Bhragu-related myth, in the course

of the yajna which Manu held, sage Bhragu was nominated by all

Brahmins and sages to decide who of the Great Trio was the

supreme divinity. For acquainting himself with their views Bhragu

decided to visit all three gods. He first went to Shiva, who busy

with Parvati, had no time to pay him any attention. Brahma was

rather rude. However, the sage lost his temper when he found

Vishnu asleep. The enraged sage hit him with his leg, which not

only awoke him but also left on his chest a mark - Shrivatsa.

However, Vishnu's reaction was only apologetic for being asleep.

Pleased with Vishnu's humility sage Bhragu blessed him that in

the form of Shrivatsa he would always have Lakshmi in his bosom.

In the Bhragu-incidence Padma Purana has sought Lakshmi's

re-emergence in a different way. Lakshmi, who was in Vishnu's

bosom when sage Bhragu hit him on his chest, felt insulted, more

so, on Vishnu's apologetic reaction. Consequently, she abandoned

him and his Baikuntha - Vishnu's abode. Unable to bear separation

Vishnu also left Baikuntha and looking for her descended on the

earth where he re-emerged as Venkatesh.

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Many yugas - cosmic ages passed in repentance and yearning. Now

reconciled, Lakshmi decided to re-emerge in Vishnu's heart as an

intrinsic realization. one day Vishnu realized Lakshmi unfolding

within him like a lotus and he felt that he was re-united with

her. The moment his realization was absolute, the universe glowed

with a divine luster and all around was abundance, riches,

prosperity, fertility and beauty. Thus, Lakshmi dually emerged in

Vishnu's life, one, by realisation, and other, by manifestation.

She, who sprouted like a lotus - padma, was Lakshmi's transform

as Padmavati, and she, who was beauty incarnate and manifested in

riches and abundance, was her transform as Shri.

Lakshmi As Bhoodevi

Myths, prevalent in southern part of India, claim Bhoodevi as

Lakshmi's yet another transform, in addition to Padmavati and

Shridevi. She is sometimes claimed to be Lakshmi in her re-birth

and sometimes as one of Vishnu's two wives, the other being Shridevi.

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In South Indian art, especially bronzes, Shridevi and Bhoodevi

are often seen flanking Vishnu's images. Lakshmi's transform as

Bhoodevi is also related to Bhragu myth. Over a period of time

Bhragu felt penitent for his misconduct against Vishnu resulting

in Vishnu's separation from Lakshmi. He hence ardently sought

their re-union. After deserting Vishnu Lakshmi had descended on

the earth and had merged into cows grazing near the termite hill

in the South. Bhragu, disguised as a cowherd, began thrashing the

cows. Vishnu could not tolerate this cruelty of the cowherd and

punished him with his mace. Bhragu appeared and worshipped the

Lord for beating him. Lakshmi, who lived in cows, was appeased

for Lord Vishnu had avenged Bhragu and appeared before him but

not as Lakshmi but as Bhoodevi and united with him. This myth

seems to be an offshoot of the Vishnu Purana myth which claims

Lakshmi as Bhragu's daughter who he had married to Narayana,

Vishnu's incarnation; or at least, the underlying pith of the two

myths is quite identical. Bhoodevi-related other legend is as

widely known. Vishnu is known to have rescued Bhoodevi from

Hiranyaksha. It is said after she was rescued, Lord Vishnu took

her as his other consort.

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Lakshmi's Puranic Transform

Broadly, the Lakshmi of later scriptures, in her own form or in

transform or re-birth, is widely different from Mahalakshmi of

Devi-Mahatmya or from the lotus goddess of Sanchi and Bharhut

reliefs. Not merely that the adjectival suffix 'Maha' is dropped,

or her independent status, lost, the Mahisha-slayer Mahalakshmi

is widely different from Lakshmi, metaphysically or otherwise.

While Lakshmi is merely the manifestation of primordial female

energy, Mahalakshmi is the primordial female energy in her own

form. Even the Brahmavaivarta Purana acclaims her as Lakshmi's

prime form out of her ten forms. It is Mahalakshmi alone who

resides in Baikuntha in the bosom of Mahavishnu. Instead of,

Lakshmi is now largely a boon-giving timid damsel serving her

spouse personally or by assisting him sustain the universe - his

primary cosmic act. She bestows bliss, prosperity, wealth and

material happiness, yields good crop and abundant grain, and

represents magnificence and beauty in life but all in a

subordinate position. As the textual tradition has it,

Mahalakshmi preceded Vishnu and pervaded not only the cosmos but

also Vishnu himself. She is Vishnu's operative energy.

It is only a text or two that perceive her as Vishnu's operative

energy or his feminine aspect, and thus Vishnu's equal, though as

compared to her prior status when as Mahadevi, Vishnu's

predecessor, she reigned over Vishnu and revealed to him as to

who he was, as also what was his errand, such metaphysical

wrangles are little gratifying. The process of depriving her of

her supreme divinity had begun with the Mahabharata itself where

in most contexts she was referred to as a mere linguistic

ｅxpression denotative of worldly riches and means. But, while in

the Mahabharata-like early texts she acclaimed to stay with the

virtuous, good and honest, in later Puranas she was slighted as

Chanchala - flirting and instable, as Rajalakshmi - kings'

property, broadly as one synonymous of riches and worldliness.

Lakshmi's Names And Forms

Besides Mahalakshmi, Padmavati, Shri, Bhoodevi, Chanchala and

Rajalakshmi, Lakshmi is also known as Kamala, Dharini, Vaishnavi,

Narayani, Vishnu-priya . Kamala is denotative of her form as

Lotus goddess; Dharini, suggestive of her immense power to bear,

is denotative of the earth and thus of her Bhoodevi form; and,

Vaishnavi, Narayani and Vishnu-priya relate her to Vishnu as his

consort.

Main among Lakshmi's forms, other than her transforms, or her

forms by re-birth or re-emergence, are her forms as Gaja-Lakshmi,

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Lakshmi-Ganapati

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and Deep-Lakshmi.

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The Gaja-Lakshmi form is sometimes known also as Mahalakshmi

form. Apart, a folk Mahalakshmi form is also popular in some

parts of the country. This folk Mahalakshmi manifests mainly as a

highly ornate unbaked clay image of an elephant, sometimes two

smaller ones flanking on sides, usually with minuscule riders -

Lakshmi and her attendants, on their backs. This icon of

Mahalakshmi, especially the elephant image, is in live worship,

though only once a year on 'Pitra-paksha Ashthami' - the eighth

day of the dark-half of the month of Bhadaun. Notably, the

tradition does not subordinate elephant to Lakshmi as her mount,

as are subordinated lion, bull, Garuda, peacock, mouse. to other

gods and goddesses. Obviously, this sense of reverence perceives

elephant as an essential component of the Lakshmi cult, and the

two, as equally venerated. This cult seems to have some very

early roots, now forgotten. In Shrilankan Buddhism, Tara is

venerated as the commander of fierce elephants. Lakshmi preceded

Tara by centuries. Maybe, Lakshmi was the goddess who befriended

or commanded wild elephants, saved inhabitants from their rage

and to appease them prescribed their worship along her own. It is

quite likely that Tara inherited her form as the commander of

wild elephants from the Lakshmi-cult.

Gaja-Lakshmi is Lakshmi's most represented form in art. It is as

massively worshipped. Lakshmi with 'gajas' - elephants, flanking

on either side is her form as Gaja-Lakshmi. It is, indeed, a form

of her in art. The Rig-Vedic Shri-Sutra alludes to elephants in

context to Shri but it is only to assert Shri's immense power.

When describing how the image of Lakshmi with elephants

performing sacred ablution magnifies the beauty of lintel on the

gate of Ravana's mansion (Valmiki Ramayana, Sundar-kanda, 7, 14),

the Ramayana alludes to Lakshmi's Gaja-Lakshmi form, and is

perhaps the earliest to do so. However, the text only describes

linguistically a visual image sculpted on it. Lakshmi's earliest

reported forms in visual arts manifest in the 3rd century B. C.

Sanchi reliefs. Not merely that these forms of Lakshmi have

elephants associated with them, these elephants have been carved

with the same amount of reverence as Lakshmi, an essential

feature of Gaja-Lakshmi principle. As alluded to in the Ramayana,

elephants in the Sanchi and Bharhut reliefs are performing sacred

ablution of the goddess, perhaps with milk brought from the

mythical Kshirasagara - the ocean of milk, in the pots of gold

held in their trunks. Elephants' association with Lakshmi-images

has been a regular feature of Lakshmi's iconography ever since.

The upper north-east chamber of Kuwwat-ul-Islam Mosque at Qut'b

complex, New Delhi, has in late Gupta art style a sculpture

representing elephants flanking the image of Lakshmi. The

sculpted stone-block was once the part of some early temple the

material of which was re-used in constructing the mosque.

Lakshmi-Ganapati is broadly an art form in which the two

independently represented images of Lakshmi and Ganesh constitute

one votive unit, commonly used during Diwali-puja. Sometimes

Lakshmi's elephants flank both images conjointly, though instead

of bathing the deities, as they do in Gaja-Lakshmi form, they

make only offerings. This form better assures success,

prosperity, good crop ... for, while Lakshmi bestows her

blessings, Ganapati keeps all detriments away. Lakshmi is the

consort of Lord Vishnu, but for obtaining Lakshmi - riches and

prosperity, she is not worshipped with him. It is by worshipping

her with Ganesha that she comes one's way. 'Shree Ganapate

namah', 'salutations to Thee, O Ganapati, whom Lakshmi precedes',

is the most popular as well as effective 'mantra' - hymn, for the

invocation of Ganesha. Lakshmi precedes the worship of Ganapati,

that is, so effective is Lakshmi-Ganapati worship that even

before Ganesha is worshipped the devotee obtains Lakshmi - the

riches and prosperity.

Deep-Lakshmi is not a form or manifestation of the Goddess

Lakshmi. It is a simple votive icon combining lamp-forms with a

woman's figure. To add to it auspiciousness it borrows Lakshmi's

name, the auspicious-most goddess. Votive only in a restricted

sense, the Deep-Lakshmi icons are worshipped during Diwali-puja

along with Diwali's presiding deity Lakshmi and Ganesh. However,

Deep-Lakshmi icons represent India's ages' long cult of

worshipping woman and celebrating the birth of light. These icons

not only synthesize India's reverence for woman with exuberance

of light but also link it with Diwali, the festival of light and

the epitome of Lakshmi cult.

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Imagery Of Lakshmi

The image of the gold-complexioned Lakshmi, as it emerges in

common man's mind, is two-fold, one, the most lustrous divine

damsel endowed with unparalleled beauty, unearthly charm and

timeless youth, richly bejeweled and costumed - usually in red,

and possessed of the oceans of wealth. She sits on a full-blown

red lotus, is flanked by a pair of elephants performing sacred

ablution, is four-armed carrying in two of them a lotus, rosary,

pot, or one of Vishnu's other attributes, and holds other two in

'abhaya' and 'varada', the postures that grant fearlessness,

bliss and redemption. Her other image is that of the most devoted

coy consort of Mahavishnu residing with him in Kshirasagara and

engaged incessantly in massaging his feet. Though possessed of

the same lustrous beauty and timeless youth as in her other form,

in this form, Lakshmi, with normal two arms engaged in serving

her lord, is more like an humble coy consort, not the mighty

slayer of a demon like Mahisha.

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Like her concept, Lakshmi's imagery also evolved over a period of

time. Initially as Mahalakshmi she has been conceived with eight,

ten, sixteen or even eighteen arms carrying in them variedly

prayer-beads, ax, mace, arrow, thunderbolt, staff, lance, sword,

shield, conch, bell, wine-cup, trident, noose and Sudarshana -

disc, and sometimes held two in 'abhaya' and 'varada'.

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Later, in her form as Lakshmi, in votive images, she is conceived

as four- armed, and in aesthetic, that is, when represented as

the consort of Lord Vishnu, with normal two arms. Lakshmi's

primordial form was also four-armed, though while in this

primordial form she carried instruments of war, in her later

four-armed iconography, she usually carries in two of them lotus,

pot, rosary, fruit, or some other Vaishnava attribute, and holds

other two in 'abhaya' and 'varada'. As Mahalakshmi she had

coral-like radiant complexion, which in Lakshmi's iconography

changes into golden hue. In her form as Lakshmi, she wears rich

costume, majestic crown, precious stones and garland of Parijata flowers.

However little, each of Lakshmi's different forms has its

iconographic distinction. Padmavati wears a lotus garland, not

one made from Parijata flowers. Lotus is an essential ingredient

in Lakshmi's iconography but in Padmavati's, it is more

thrusting. Lotus invariably comprises her seat. She often has a

lotus under her feet, carries lotuses at least in two of her

hands, and has sometimes lotus motifs on palms.  Lotuses often

define the ambience around and as often the architecture of the

sanctum she enshrines. She is usually installed under a

lotus-canopy. Symbolizing in one ocean, earth and sky, the lotus

is a characteristic feature of the entire iconography of Lakshmi,

who pervades them all, but in the iconography of Padmavati the

significance of lotus is also for other reason. It was in the

form of the lotus that Padmavati evolved in Vishnu's heart.

Indeed, Padmavati's evolution and lotus are mutually linked. As

Shridevi, Lakshmi is the image of the supreme beauty conceived as

heavily bejeweled. She is unique in luster and majesty.

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No less is her splendor as Gaja-Lakshmi, though it is the

phenomenal presence of elephants, represented dramatically

bathing her, that imparts to her image its exotic distinction.

Bhoodevi, representing earthly character, the fertility, is

humbly attired. The Garuda-riding Vaishnavi, the goddess of

battlefield, carries instruments of war. Alike different are her

forms and overall personalities in her births as Radha and Sita.

Lakshmi's Worship

Ironically, almost every Indian, rich or poor, king or subject,

prays Lakshmi to make his home her permanent abode, and hardly a

house, even an illiterate's, would be without her name, graphic

symbol 'swastika', or her 'mantra' - 'Shri Lakshmi sada sahay

karen', that is, 'may Lakshmi who is also Shri always be my help',

inscribed on one of its walls or cash-boxes, or without her

visual representation - a metal or clay statue, or a painting -

printed or painted, even banks and Government bodies would not

hesitate in inscribing at least 'shubha' - auspicious, and 'labha'

 - profiting, Lakshmi's attributes, on their chests, but despite

all that, she hasn't many shrines, not even domestic, entirely

devoted to her in north and Central India at least. However, She

enshrines most sanctums with Vishnu, her spouse, such images

being known as Lakshmi-Narayana, Lakshmi preceding Narayana.

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However in South, Lakshmi, as Padmavati and Shridevi, and

sometimes as Bhoodevi, is worshipped widely and independent of

Vishnu. Shridevi form of Lakshmi is so popular in South that even

the name of Vishnu, her lord, has changed to Shrinivasa - abode

of Shri, after her. However, different from Shri, Padmavati has

for South Indian masses some kind of mythical significance and

local connotation. As the mythological tradition has it,

Lakshmi's form as Padmavati emerged when she re-united with

Vishnu after the latter left Baikuntha searching her and settled

on Tirumala hill of the Eastern Ghats in South. The part of the

Eastern Ghats, where lay Vishnu, curved like the great serpent

Shesh, Vishnu's seat, and came to be known as Sheshachala.

According to the legend, the king, under whose reign fell the

Sheshachala hill, found that when back, a particular cow did not

have any milk in its udders. Cowherd had no satisfactory

explanation. one day, the king secretly followed the cow for

knowing what actually happened. He was amazed to see that milk

flew from the cow's udders of its own as soon as she reached a

particular spot. He got the spot dug and to his utter surprise

from underneath revealed Lord Vishnu reclining there though in

the form of an image. He had Lakshmi in his bosom but not

manifest and the king did not see her. A temple was built and the

image, named Venkateshvara, was installed. After some days,

priests and devotees realized that a luster having a female form

sprouted like a lotus from within him. This divine realization

was given a form. It was Padmavati, Venkateshvara's consort by

spiritual realization. Though Venkateshvara temple enshrined only

him, many temples were built independently for Padmavati all over

the South and she is now one of the utmost worshipped divinities

of South.

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This article by Prof. P. C. Jain and Dr. Daljeet

For further study

The Mahabharata

Valmiki Ramayana

Vishnu Purana

Devi-Mahatmya part of Markandeya Puran

Brahmavaivarta Purana

Padma Purana

Puranic Encyclopaedia

Prachina Charitra-kosha

Dr. Daljeet and P. C. Jain : Indian Miniature Painting

Shanti Lal Nagar : Indian Gods and Goddesses

Maringer Johannes : The Gods of Prehistoric Times

W. J. Wilkins : Hindu Mythology

Devi : Goddesses of India : ed. John Stratton Hawley & Donna Marie Wulff

Lawrence Babb : The Divine Hierarchy : Popular Hinduism in Central India

P. C. Jain : Folk Arts of India (in press)

Sivaramamurti, C. Ethical Fragrance of Indian Art.

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Warm regards,

Nitin Kumar

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